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1. IntroductionPractice effects are characteristic of serial neurocognitive assessments, including those used in clinical trials. They refer to changes in test performance attributed to increasing familiarity with and exposure to test instruments, paradigms, and items. Nevertheless, these effects are often underappreciated. Our own work in this area, has identified them as important in the interpretation of both outcomes in clinical trials and in longitudinal studies of patients with schizophrenia.

Here, we discuss the relevance of these findings to clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a stage often thought to be transitional between cognitive health and AD, and, notably, preclinical AD. Preclinical AD at stages 1 and 2 refers to those individuals who have cerebrospinal fluid or positron emission tomography evidence of amyloid-β abnormalities and/or “downstream” neurodegeneration but do not demonstrate cognitive changes; at stage 3, individuals additionally suffer from subtle cognitive changes. For preclinical AD, the assessment of cognition has been suggested by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a suitable and sole primary end point for the accelerated approval of a pharmaceutical treatment (FDA Draft Guidelines for Early Stage AD). For recent clinical trials in AD and MCI, studies typically used designs comparing cognition between the drug and placebo groups, assessed on several occasions but within a relatively short period of 18 months to 2 years, and with the end point or final assessment used as the outcome.

That end point, however, may be strongly influenced by previous testing as we show in Sections, below. Thus, the serial testing used in these clinical trials may result in unappreciated but artifactual gains across a range of neuropsychological measures, including speed of processing, episodic memory, executive function, and working memory.Practice effects may result from several different factors and in our view can be divided into two components. The first can be termed task familiarity and occurs early in serial assessment with given cognitive tasks.

It involves the subject gaining full comprehension of the directions for the task necessary for context memory (e.g., that letters and numbers alternate in Trail-Making Test B), some knowledge of the sequence of a task (e.g., that multiple trials of a word list will be administered), and stimulus response mapping (e.g., use of a response pad in an N back test). Some task familiarity effects may be due to procedural learning, an aspect of cognition that remains relatively uncompromised in AD. Even if the active treatment outperforms the placebo when both arms show practice effects, this effect may be due to an enhancement of procedural memory, which will not generate substantial benefit to the everyday cognitive function of patients with AD. The second component can be termed practice-related effects. These include gains made over multiple exposures to the test because of familiarity with specific items (e.g., words on a list, a story to be recalled). Developing strategies over time that alter performance (e.g., clustering words semantically on a verbal list-learning test) might occur either as a task familiarity phenomenon or as a practice-related phenomenon. The distinction between these two components is important beyond nomenclature because it directly suggests different trial design and test construction strategies for their reduction (see Sections, below).

If not managed, these practice effects could result in improvements that are unrelated to valid drug-placebo differences in a clinical trial.In the context of learning and memory, practice effects would not be valid indices of specific cognitive enhancement if they do not generalize or transfer readily to other tasks or real-world activities that draw on ostensibly similar cognitive operations. This is often referred to as the “transfer of training” problem. Thus, practice effects that do not relate to concurrent improvements in broad domains of cognition may be viewed as item or paradigm specific. They may also engage different cognitive operations and neural systems (e.g., procedural learning) than those thought to be treated in the intervention. Also, some studies have shown that improvements in performance with repeated exposure can be used as prognostic indicators, including those related to MCI to AD conversion and survival,. However, detailed discussion of these is outside the scope of the present article, which focuses on the adverse impacts of practice effects on clinical trial outcomes.

Rather, in the context of a clinical trial we will cover in detail the interpretative and statistical problems associated with practice effects (see especially Sections, ).We begin with a selective review of the literature on practice effects in AD, MCI, and older healthy controls as they relate to trials. We then present an example of how practice effects were confounded with treatment effects from the schizophrenia literature. Based on the literature and the schizophrenia studies, which strongly suggest that practice effects are present and large enough to obscure or be mistaken for a treatment signal, we first discuss an array of possible solutions. Next, we make recommendations for managing practice effects in preclinical AD trials based both on our review and experience in the psychometrics of test construction. It is important from the outset to recognize that our purpose is not to review the practice effect literature comprehensively. This has already been done,. Rather, our purpose is to draw out the confounding implications of practice effects in clinical trials in non–cognitively impaired older populations and suggest concrete remedies.

2. MethodsWe first selectively review the literature in MCI and AD with the intention of demonstrating that even in presumptively amnestic subjects, practice effects can be identified in some cohorts. Our review in the AD and MCI groups is not meant to be exhaustive or comprehensive but rather to suggest that such effects are plausible occurrences. We then shift our focus to older, cognitively healthy individuals to demonstrate that such effects are common and measureable in serial assessment paradigms and to determine the approximate magnitude of practice effects on cognitive tests in this group.

This latter group will be the focus of intense interest as the AD field moves toward secondary prevention trials in the preclinical AD spectrum. AD and MCI samplesPractice effects in AD have not been discussed often. Perhaps, this is the result of an expectation that many patients are substantially amnestic and unable to learn and consolidate item-level information over repeated testing.

However, memory impairments are dependent on individual differences in premorbid ability and disease stage, thus creating some variability in training. Furthermore, impairments in other domains may not be as severe as those in neural systems associated with the primary amnestic symptoms (hippocampal and medial temporal lobe pathology) and so may also increase the likelihood of practice effects (e.g., some learning may engage striatal procedural learning systems that may be relatively intact in AD).

However, we acknowledge that practice effects in AD and MCI are smaller than those in healthier populations, and their significance perhaps arguable. At the same time, it should at least be considered that practice effects could serve to obscure ongoing cognitive deficits in progressive degenerative dementia.Even with these caveats, practice effects were observed and commented on in early clinical trials of tacrine in AD. Practice effects on the Mini-Mental State Examination were discernible using repeated-measures statistical techniques in AD. Indirect evidence for practice effects in AD patients comes from the large number of cholinesterase inhibitor clinical trials in which both the drug and placebo groups demonstrated improvements in performance-based outcomes measures early in the trial (in the 3- to 6-month period), with maximum effect sizes (ESs) in the 0.10 to 0.15 range. In contrast, practice effects in Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative's (ADNI) AD subjects, tested at 6 monthly intervals over the first 2 years, were negligible.In ADNI's MCI group, practice effects were evident for logical memory, immediate and delayed recall, at 12 months, but were small for most other measures (T.E.G., unpublished data, 2014). In a clinical trial of MCI subjects that examined the effect of two treatments, both generally deemed ineffective (placebo and vitamin E), gains in multiple nonmemory domains (e.g., language semantic fluency and naming, executive digits backward, digit symbol, number cancellation, and visual processing clock drawing) were observed at 6 and 12 months. ES gains ranged from about 0.06 to 0.30 in these domains.

It is possible that these practice effects reduced the ability of the measures to detect disease-related declines in placebo groups and masked treatment effects.In sum, practice effects can be identified in studies involving MCI and AD subjects. The magnitude of practice effects can vary across cohorts, and the literature is unclear in identifying those tests that might be most sensitive or insensitive to practice effects. Additionally, the magnitude of such practice effects (when present) diminishes as the trial progresses, and by the end of the trial, disease progression often eliminates these practice effects and decline can be observed. However, even when decline is observed, this may be an underestimate of the true decline in cognitive abilities because of practice effects.

Furthermore, performance on the repeated measures at early time points beyond baseline may be inflated in both treatment and placebo groups. Older healthy individualsA number of studies involving repeated cognitive testing in healthy elderly groups in longitudinal studies or non–central nervous system–related clinical trials have identified practice effects both at short and longer between-test intervals,. Several of these studies indicated that such effects were large enough to reduce or eliminate age-related decline over several years,. In ADNI, practice effects were noted for older controls (mean age = 75 years) on several tests including those involving speed, logical memory, and naming. The ESs of these increases listed in were in the low to medium range (0.20–0.30).

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Findings from ADNI may be especially important because they use several of the tests likely to be used in preclinical AD trials, and the subjects are likely to be representative of potential participants in preclinical AD trials. Abbreviations: ADNI, Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative; AVLT, Auditory Verbal Learning Test; DSST, Digit Symbol Substitution Test.We next focus on two very recent studies that provide further quantitative support for this view. The first is a meta-analysis of practice effects and the second is a recent and large study of practice effects (not included in the meta-analysis). With respect to the former, Calamia et al.

Reported a comprehensive meta-analysis in healthy controls and various neuropsychiatric groups that examined domain-specific effects as well as composite effects and accounted for various modifying factors, including age, test-retest interval, and test domain. For any given test, the number of studies ranged from 8 to 143 and from 12 subjects to 186.

Calamia et al. Determined a composite practice effect of z (regression weight) = 0.24 in a modal middle-aged subject retested at a 1-year interval. In a well-conducted study using the Mayo Clinic neurocognitive battery, Machulda et al. Found an ES of 0.24 for their global composite in a sample of 947 cognitively stable individuals (mean age, 78 years) who were tested three times over a 30-month period (and five times over 60 months). Improvements were largest in the learning and memory and smallest in language tests. Attention and speed measure gains fell between the two aforementioned domains. Based on the moderator regression weights for age and retest interval provided in the report by Calamia et al, as well as our own experience, and that of others with multiple reassessments (in which magnitude of improvement with a third assessment is approximately half that of the initial T0–T1 reassessment), we estimate a performance gain of approximately 0.25 in healthy individuals in the 70- to 75-year age range undergoing three assessments within a 6- to 12-month period.

Although the sum total of improvement seems quite small, in cases who are at risk for development of MCI or dementia, this amount of improvement could mask several years' subtle decline in cognition.Practice effects may not be restricted to cognitive measures. Harvey et al. Demonstrated substantial practice effects on the part of older (mean age = 68 years) healthy controls in the ability to perform tests of functional skills when assessed at 18-month retest intervals.

These individuals were tested up to three times with a single form of a performance-based functional capacity measure. Schizophrenia clinical trialsBefore discussing how practice effects may make interpretation of clinical trial results challenging, we address germane findings from schizophrenia antipsychotic trials to anchor our interpretation of AD spectrum–related practice effect findings to a concrete, nonhypothetical example of the problems of separating practice effects from treatment effects. We first identified practice effects as a largely unrecognized but pervasive problem in a clinical trial involving putative cognitive-enhancing antipsychotic drugs in first-episode subjects with schizophrenia and a healthy control group. Both groups were serially assessed at three time points in a 16-week period with a comprehensive set of neurocognitive measures. Both groups improved over time and to a similar degree with an ES of 0.35 from T0 to T2. As the healthy control group's improvement could only be attributed to practice (based on item familiarity, given that alternate forms were not used in the testing battery), schizophrenia-related improvement of the same magnitude could most parsimoniously be attributed to practice as well. Furthermore, it is important to appreciate that although schizophrenia subjects have widespread cognitive impairments in the mild to moderate range, these did not preclude the group from demonstrating a practice effect.

Such practice effects have since been observed in multiple studies, and it is now clear that practice effects are the best explanation for improvement in several large trials in which patients were randomized to second-generation antipsychotic drugs or to a first-generation antipsychotic comparator and assessed at multiple time points (e.g., ). Thus, there is substantial evidence that the influences of these practice effects had unfortunate consequences, as a confusing state evolved with claims and counterclaims made for the “benefits” of one antipsychotic or another.

4. DiscussionIt is our hope that by drawing attention to this issue, the field will begin to develop novel strategies that may overcome changes in cognitive performance that are solely due to practice effects. An organized attempt to reduce practice effects will not only eliminate a large source of noise in AD trials but also reduce the likelihood of misinterpreting outcomes. As such, we believe that this issue should be dealt with proactively in the design of clinical trials.Critically, given our review of the literature, it is likely that individuals who are at high risk for AD (symptomatic or asymptomatic) and who are enrolled in trials and have intact cognition or subtly impaired cognition will demonstrate robust practice effects on many of the tests used. If not controlled, these practice effects may mask subtle decline in a placebo group, reducing the ability to detect improvements, if any, in the active treatment group. In this latter group, conservatively, an ES of 0.25 units would likely be larger than decline over a 6- to12-month period. Alternatively, effects might be misinterpreted as active drug effects in trials in which cohort differences in learning were present and positive drug effects would have to be substantial to be detected (see below). Use of alternate formsOn the face of it, the use of alternate forms would seem to be a straightforward approach.

However, some tests with problem-solving components (e.g., the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and similar procedures) and that require discovery of an overarching and discrete set of rules are not easily amenable to this solution. Second, in other problem-solving tasks, generation of various strategies can result in improved performance across testing, even with alternate forms. Third, alternate forms may not be equivalent: They are often quite different in difficulty. This was recently demonstrated on the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) in the non–cognitively impaired sample from the ADNI study in which two parallel versions, forms A and B, were administered over 5 years.

Form B was administered at 6 months and 3 years, and form A at 1, 2, 4, and 5 years. Compared with performance at the start of the study, the two forms showed either declines or improvements. Presents the data from which it can be seen that compared with performance at the start of the study, version B of this verbal list-learning test was associated with significantly reduced performance at 6 months and 3 years, whereas version A showed improvements, which were significant for both immediate and delayed recall at 2 years. Studies in schizophrenia have also revealed significant discrepancies across forms of common tests in repeated-measures designs. Thus, alternate forms pose a significant problem in that the more testing points that there are, the more alternate forms are required.

When forms of different difficulty are administered over time, the true course of functioning becomes very challenging to discern. In many ways, practice effect variance across single forms is a more easily managed problem than alternate forms of variable difficulty.

Reliable change indexThe reliable change index (RCI) is a rigorous approach that yields information on the number of individual subjects who demonstrate gains above and beyond practice. A confidence interval identifies the extent to which an individual subject would have to improve to demonstrate progress beyond a practice effect beyond reasonable doubt.

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The statistic is dependent on not only differences in means between time points but also the variance of the difference and the practice effect for untreated cases,. This statistic is critical for treatment development because it allows for estimation of the magnitude of change that exceeds the practice effect on a placebo-corrected basis that excludes all non–treatment-related differences. Nevertheless, this is a conservative statistic that does not consider the fact that for nearly every treatment, not all treated cases respond. Thus, the number needed to treat must be crossed with the RCI for the outcome measures to understand the magnitude of a group response that would suggest a truly responsive subgroup. A similar approach uses regression models that take into account individual demographics and initial level of performance to define an expected score and a confidence interval. This approach may be more flexible than the RCI approach.

Additionally, the information output is based on the case count, not group mean differences. Nevertheless, cases can be combined and contrasted across conditions, although we are not aware of any phase 3 trial that has used either of these statistics. Prebaseline massed practiceIn this approach, an attempt is made to reach an asymptote in task familiarity–driven gains during a lead-in or prebaseline period of the trial by administering tests multiple times in a short period (e.g., two to three administrations within a day). This approach has been advocated for many years,. Although several studies, have indicated that two to three practice trials before baseline result in asymptotic performance, others indicate a mixed picture, with different tests demonstrating asymptotes over different number of repetitions.

The intent in using massed practice is to minimize issues of comprehension of instructions, strategy formation, and inefficient stimulus response mapping due to lack of familiarity, as opposed to practice-related effects such as item exposure–related gains.One aspect of this approach that may be problematic if performance is relatively high at baseline is that a ceiling effect associated with practice could prevent further change due to treatment. Another potential problem with this approach is that, after baseline, an artifactual decline can result because of the use of an alternate form of the test not used in the prebaseline period or possible loss of retention of task familiarity–based knowledge of instructions, sequence, strategies, and so on. Additionally, other work has suggested that practice may recruit, engage, or otherwise occlude the same or opposing neural systems as those targeted by treatment and interfere with connectivity, neurochemical, or plasticity-related alterations specific to active treatment. Control groupsWe do not agree with the frequently made argument that the use of a control group obviates practice effect issues because the essential comparison in a clinical trial is between groups at end point and not change over time. First, it is easier to detect a change signal against a “flat,” no practice effect background than against a noisier, practice effect-plus-treatment effect background. In keeping with this view, it has been demonstrated that a procognitive drug effect (e.g., amphetamine in schizophrenia and donepezil in AD patients) was much more likely to be identified using tests that did not show practice effects, rather than using domain-similar tests that were prone to practice effects,. These findings may have been the result of reductions in practice-associated variance.

Alternatively, repeated exposure to the same stimulus reduced potential plasticity in the neural system targeted by the drug, thereby obscuring any benefit of the drug on cognitive function. Second, if time is explicitly taken into account in repeated measures in the comparison of groups in a trial, an ES of 0.20 to 0.30, corresponding to a barely noticeable between-group effect for treatment, would be added to a practice-effect ES of 0.25 in more intact populations. Thus, the gain in the active treatment group would have to be as high as 0.50 for a difference between treatment groups to be detected (as a group × time interaction). This is large and would require a seemingly improbably efficacious compound, particularly in cases with MCI or dementia.

Nevertheless, we acknowledge that this is a statistically driven model, and there is neither positive nor negative data that directly bear on it. A priori development of tests that are not prone to practice effectsSensitivity to the issue of practice effects in the a priori design of a variety of tests that assay multiple cognitive domains offers several advantages: use of cognitive science paradigms that minimize individual item recall and strategy shifts that could differentially impact performance, development of alternate forms from large item pools, and comprehensive co-normed data for the battery versions.

Thus, a novel battery of tests was recently constructed that used specific principles from the cognitive science literature to substantially reduce practice effects: (1) multiple items, a restricted set of stimuli that serve to induce interference, and alternative and equivalent forms with different items and sequences in tests of attention, working memory, and executive function and (2) for episodic memory, obligatory common encoding of items (to reduce strategy changes). Preliminary results in 29 healthy controls (age range, 20–50 years) who were tested three times in 16 weeks suggested reduced practice effects (for all tests below an ES = 0.15), robust psychometrics, and lack of ceiling and floor effects (T.E.G., unpublished data).

Several tests have also directly addressed practice effects (via alternate forms) and have been used in AD-related clinical trials. These include, but are not restricted, to the following: Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status, CogState Battery (including the Groton Maze Learning Test), and the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) System, but their factor structure, the computational operations demanded by particular tests, and their relationship to everyday function have not always been fully delineated.

6. RecommendationsThree approaches to attenuating practice effects involve (1) massed practice in a prebaseline period so that a task familiarity having to do with comprehension of instructions, development of simple strategies, stimulus response mapping, and testing sequence is increased; (2) use of tests with multiple similar items, standardized encoding, and so on that capitalize on cognitive science principles that reduce recall of individual items or protect against large strategy shifts that might influence recall; and (3) well-matched alternate forms to minimize item exposure. Each has different strengths, pragmatic implications, and economic costs. Our list of suggestions is included in.A clinical trial using tests that are designed to avoid the impact of practice-related effects would look very much like current trials in which baseline assessment at T0 by version A of the test was followed by three more assessments (T1-version B, T2-version C, and T3-version D) over an 18-month period. Administration of test versions would be counterbalanced.

For trials in which prebaseline test administration was used (i.e., “massed practice”) to reduce task familiarity effects, two to three assessments before baseline might reduce these artifacts,.For example, for a task of paired associate learning for which there is benefit in understanding the paradigm, two prebaseline assessments (version X) could serve to increase task familiarity, with another version (A) serving as baseline. This would be followed by three more assessments (T1-version B, T2-version C, and T3-version D). Of course, ceiling effects would have to be considered and minimized if necessary. Strategy changes in digit span (e.g., “chunking” items or covert rehearsal) or in visual search during Trail-Making Part B (appreciating that a number or letter may be “under” one's hand) and using semantic clustering in memory tests might also be stabilized in prebaseline administrations. It might not be possible, however, to estimate in advance how many massed practice sessions are required to eliminate the possibility of subsequent improvements. This solution might be especially useful in populations with more substantial baseline impairments such as MCI or AD, where improvement to ceiling is less likely. 7. Final thoughtsConsider the following thought experiment.

An outcome of a prevention trial in preclinical AD suggests that a neurodegenerative cascade has been arrested. This effective disease-modifying treatment would result in stability in cognitive function or small improvements, insofar as the neurodegenerative effects are reversed. The untreated group would decline, albeit subtly. A sensitive set of tests assaying important cognitive domains and resistant to practice effects would accurately monitor this scenario. In contrast, using tests subject to practice effects, both groups would improve, inaccurately representing the drug's efficacy, resulting in the strong possibility that differential effects would be masked as the within-group change would be much greater than the between-group change, and resulting in a serious type 2 error. In other words, the cognitive signal would have been misaligned with underlying neurobiological changes associated with neurodegeneration (neural system compromises) and rectifications thereof.

We think that interpretation would be parsimonious and accurate if a treatment-related signal could be identified in a group that would otherwise demonstrate measurable subtle decline across time points. 2.Interpretation: Practice effects are frequently found in preclinical AD and reliably observed in healthy elderly individuals. Their effect size is estimated to be moderate (Cohen's d=.25). We further suggest that individuals with preclinical AD, who by definition are normal or near-normal cognitively, will demonstrate practice effects that are similar in magnitude to those in the healthy elderly. We provide scenarios by which such effects could easily cloud interpretation of results in clinical trials, such that a drug effect is confounded with a practice effect and/or does not align with neurobiological processes, including aging and neurodegeneration. The authors thank Dr. Richard Keefe for comments on an earlier draft of this work.T.E.G.

Has received funding for the writing of this article from the NIA (3R01 ) and DOD (W81XWH-12-1-0084). He receives royalties from NeuroCog Trials for use of the BACS in clinical trials.P.D.H. Is a consultant for the following companies: AbbVie, Boehringer-Ingelheim, En Vivo, FORUM Pharma, Genentech, Lundbeck, Otsuka-America, Roche, Sunovion, and Takeda. He conducted contract research for Genentech.L.S.S. Has received grants from the NIH P50 AG05142, R01 AG033288, R01 AG037561, and UF1, the State of California, the Alzheimer's Association for a registry for dementia and cognitive impairment trials and grants or research support from the Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study (NIA, UCSD), Baxter, Genentech, Johnson & Johnson, Eli Lilly, Lundbeck, Novartis, Pfizer, and Tau Rx.

He has served as a consultant for and received consulting fees from AbbVie, AC Immune, Allon, AstraZeneca, Baxter, Biogen Idec, Biotie, Bristol-Myers Squibb, CereSpir, Chiesi, Elan, Eli Lilly, En Vivo, GlaxoSmithKline, Johnson & Johnson, Lundbeck, MedAvante, Merck, Novartis, Piramal, Pfizer, Roche, Servier, Takeda, Tau Rx, Toyama, and Zinfandel.P.J.S. Is a consultant for CogState, Ltd. (Melbourne, Australia).K.A.W. Was until recently an employee and shareholder in Bracket, who provide the CDR System to the clinical trial industry.